Republic of Peru República del Perú (Spanish)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Himno Nacional del Perú"  (Spanish) "National Anthem of Peru"
Capital (and largest city)		Lima 12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W / 12.0433°S 77.0283°W / -12.0433; -77.0283
Official language(s)		Spanish
Ethnic groups (2011)		Mestizo (76%) Amerindian (7%) White (6%) Asian (1%) Black (1%) Mulatto (1%) Other (1%) (self-reported)[1]
Demonym		Peruvian
Government		Unitary presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Ollanta Humala
-	Prime Minister	Oscar Valdés
Legislature		Congress
Independence		from Spain
-	Declared	July 28, 1821
-	Consolidated	December 9, 1824
-	Recognized	August 14, 1879
-	Current constitution	December 31, 1993
Area
-	Total	1,285,216 km2 (20th) 496,225 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.41
Population
-	2010 estimate	29,496,000 (40th)
-	2007 census	28,220,764
-	Density	23/km2 (191st) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$322.675 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$10,588[2]
GDP (nominal)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$184.962 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$6,069[2]
Gini (2009)		▼48[3] (high)
HDI (2010)		0.723[4] (high) (63rd)
Currency		Nuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zone		PET (UTC−5)
Date formats		dd.mm.yyyy (Spanish;CE)
Drives on the		Right
ISO 3166 code		PE
Internet TLD		.pe
Calling code		+51
1	Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru ⁱ/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú;^[5] Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures, spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 29.5 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology [link]

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.^[6] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.^[7] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.^[8] The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.^[9] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence.

History [link]

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.^[10] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.^[11] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.^[12] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.^[13]

In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.^[14] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.^[15] Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.^[16] However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.^[17] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.^[18] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.^[19]

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.^[20] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.^[21] National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.^[22] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.^[23] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.^[24]

Independence was proclaimed by José de San Martín in 1821.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.^[25] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).^[26] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.^[27]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.^[28] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.^[29] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.^[30] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.^[31] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.^[32]

Government [link]

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.^[33] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.^[34] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.^[35] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.^[36] The judiciary is nominally independent,^[37] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.^[38]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.^[39] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).^[40] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).^[41]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.^[42] Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.^[43] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.^[44] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.^[45]

Regions [link]

Ama
zonas

Ancash

Apurímac

Arequipa

Ayacucho

Caja
marca

Cusco

Huánuco

Huanca
velica

Ica

Junín

La Libertad

Lamba
yeque

Lima

Lima
Province

Callao

Loreto

Madre de Dios

Moquegua

Pasco

Piura

Puno

Tacna

Tumbes

San
Martín

Ucayali

info

Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.^[46] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.^[47] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.^[48]

Regions:

Province:

• Lima

Geography [link]

Peru covers 1,285,216 km² (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.^[49] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.^[50]

Left: Alpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park.
Right: Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve, depicts the Peruvian rainforest.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.^[51] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.^[52]

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.^[53] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.^[54] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.^[55] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.^[56]

Economy [link]

Peru is a developing country with a market-oriented economy; its 2010 per capita income is estimated by the IMF at US$5,195,^[2] and it has a high Human Development Index score of 0.723 based on 2010 data.^[57] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.^[58] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.^[59] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that is extremely poor.^[60]

Left: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.
Right: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro, Lima.

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.^[61] Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.^[62] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.^[63]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).^[64] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.^[65] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.^[66] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.^[67]

Demographics [link]

Clockwise from top:
Afro-Peruvian association football athlete Jefferson Farfán.
Nobel laureate writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
Former President of Peru, economist Alejandro Toledo.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian David N. Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.^[68] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from Italy, Spain, France, Britain, and Germany followed independence.^[69] Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.^[70] The majority of the people in Peru are Amerindians, mostly Quechua and Aymara, or mestizos who are of mixed white and Amerindian ancestry.^[71] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.^[72]

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.^[73] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.^[74] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.^[75] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.^[76]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.^[77] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.^[78] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).^[79] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.^[80]

Culture [link]

Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,^[81] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.^[82] During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.^[83] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.^[84] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.^[85]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.^[86] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría^[87] and José María Arguedas.^[88] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.^[89]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.^[90] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.^[91] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.^[92]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.^[93] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.^[94] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.^[95] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.^[96] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, and huayno.^[97]

See also [link]

	Latin America portal
	South America portal
	Peru portal

• Index of Peru-related articles
• Outline of Peru

v t e  Peru topics History Timeline Ancient cultures Inca Empire Spanish conquest Viceroyalty War of Independence Guano Era War of the Pacific Colombia–Peru War Ecuadorian–Peruvian war Internal conflict Demographic Economic Geography Cities Earthquakes Wildlife Flora Mountains Natural regions Protected areas Rivers Government Constitution Electoral system Foreign relations Law Law enforcement Military Nationality law Regions and provinces Politics Elections Political parties (Alliance for the Future APRA National Unity Possible Peru Peruvian Nationalist Party Popular Action Union for Peru) Economy Agriculture Central Bank Communications Companies Currency Electricity Stock Exchange Tourism Transport Water supply and sanitation Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Demographics Education Languages Literature Media Music Public holidays Religion Sport Other topics List of Peruvians Human rights International rankings Llama Machu Picchu National symbols Index Portal

Notes [link]

References [link]

External links [link]

Find more about Peru on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Country Profile from BBC News
• Peru from the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Peru entry at The World Factbook
• Peru at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Peru at the Open Directory Project
• PeruLinks web directory
• Wikimedia Atlas of Peru
• Peru travel guide from Wikitravel
• (Spanish) Web portal of the Peruvian Government
• Geographic data related to Peru at OpenStreetMap

Related information [link]

Geographic locale v t e Countries and dependencies of South America Sovereign states Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador France French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies United Kingdom Falkland Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

International membership v t e Latin Union Member nations Andorra Angola Bolivia Brazil Cape Verde Chile Colombia Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Dominican Republic East Timor Ecuador El Salvador France Guatemala Guinea-Bissau Haiti Honduras Italy Mexico Moldova Monaco Mozambique Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Portugal Romania San Marino São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Spain Uruguay Venezuela Permanent observers Argentina Holy See Sovereign Military Order of Malta Official languages Catalan French Italian Portuguese Romanian Spanish v t e Union of South American Nations Member states Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Summits 2004 South American Summit 2008 South American Summit 2009 South American Summit 2010 South American Summit 2011 South American Summit Topics Cusco Declaration Constitutive Treaty President Pro Tempore Secretary General Bank of the South South American Parliament Initiative for Infrastructure Integration of South America Mercosur Andean Community v t e Andean Community of Nations Members Bolivia Colombia Ecuador Peru Associate members Argentina Brazil Chile Paraguay Uruguay Venezuela Observers Mexico Panama v t e Mercosur · Mercosul  (Southern Common Market) Treaties Treaty of Asunción Protocol of Ouro Preto Currencies Argentine peso Brazilian real Paraguayan guaraní Uruguayan peso gaucho Members Argentina Brazil Paraguay Uruguay Venezuela Associates Bolivia Chile Colombia Ecuador Peru Observers Mexico New Zealand v t e Organization of American States (OAS) Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Barbados Brazil Belize Bahamas Bolivia Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines St. Kitts and Nevis Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela

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